## TL;DR

Colonialism (15th-20th centuries) saw European powers establish political, economic, and cultural control over much of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Peak at Berlin Conference (1884-85): European powers partitioned Africa without African input. Decolonization: 1945-1975, ~80 former colonies gained independence.

## Core Explanation

Motivations: economic (raw materials, markets), political (prestige), ideological ('civilizing mission'). Types: settler colonialism (Americas, Australia), exploitation colonialism (Africa, India). Berlin Conference: 'Scramble for Africa' — by 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. Decolonization: India (1947), Ghana (1957, first sub-Saharan), African Year (1960, 17 countries). Legacy: arbitrary borders create ongoing conflicts, economic inequality, cultural trauma.

## Further Reading

- [The Scramble for Africa (Thomas Pakenham)](https://www.harpercollins.com/products/the-scramble-for-africa-thomas-pakenham)