## TL;DR

Philosophy of science examines how science works. Kuhn (1962) challenged the view of science as steady accumulation: instead, 'paradigm shifts' disrupt 'normal science.' Popper: falsifiability demarcates science from non-science — a theory must be testable and refutable. Scientific realism vs. instrumentalism: do theories describe reality or just predict observations?

## Core Explanation

Kuhn: normal science (puzzle-solving within paradigm) → anomalies accumulate → crisis → paradigm shift (scientific revolution). Example: Newtonian physics → Einsteinian relativity. Incommensurability: different paradigms can't be fully compared — they use different concepts. Popper: Freudian psychoanalysis and Marxism are unfalsifiable → not science. Reproducibility crisis (2010s): many published findings fail to replicate — methodology reform ongoing.

## Further Reading

- [The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Thomas Kuhn)](https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/S/bo13179781.html)